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Reading Passage 1: William Gilbert and Magnetism
A The 16th and 17th centuries saw two great pioneers of modern science: Galileo and Gilbert. The impact of their findings is eminent. Gilbert was the first modern scientist, the accredited father of the science of electricity and magnetism, an Englishman of learning and a physician at the court of Elizabeth. Prior to him, all that was known of electricity and magnetism was what the ancients knew: nothing more than that the lodestone possessed magnetic properties and that amber and jet, when rubbed, would attract bits of paper or other substances of small specific gravity. However, he is less well known than he deserves.
B Gilbert's birth predated Galileo's. Born into an eminent local family in Colchester, Essex, on 24 May 1544, he went to grammar school and then studied medicine at St John's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1573. Later he travelled on the Continent and eventually settled in London.
C He was a very successful and eminent doctor. All this culminated in his election as president of the Royal Society. He was also appointed personal physician to Queen Elizabeth I and was later knighted by her. He faithfully served her until her death. However, he did not outlive the Queen for long and died on 30 November 1603, only a few months after his appointment as personal physician to King James.
D Gilbert was first interested in chemistry but later changed his focus because alchemy contained too great a portion of mysticism (such as the transmutation of metals). He gradually developed an interest in physics, inspired by the great minds of the ancients, particularly the knowledge the ancient Greeks had about lodestones—strange minerals with the power to attract iron. In the meantime, Britain became a major seafaring nation in 1588 when the Spanish Armada was defeated, opening the way to British settlement of America. British ships depended on the magnetic compass, yet no one understood why it worked. Did the Pole Star attract it, as Columbus once speculated; or was there a magnetic mountain at the pole, as described in the Odyssey, which ships would never approach because the sailors thought its pull would yank out all their iron nails and fittings? For nearly 20 years, William Gilbert conducted ingenious experiments to understand magnetism. His works include On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and The Great Magnet of the Earth.
E Gilbert's discoveries were of great importance to modern physics. He investigated the nature of magnetism and electricity, and he even coined the word “electric”. Early beliefs about magnetism were largely entangled with superstitions—for instance, sailors believed that rubbing garlic on a lodestone could neutralise its magnetism and that even the smell of garlic would interfere with the action of a compass, which is why helmsmen were forbidden to eat it near a ship's compass. Gilbert also found that metals can be magnetised by rubbing materials such as fur on them. He named the ends of a magnet the “north pole” and “south pole”. The magnetic poles can attract or repel, depending on polarity; ordinary iron, however, is always attracted to a magnet. Though he began to study the relationship between magnetism and electricity, he did not complete this work. His research into static electricity using amber and jet only demonstrated that objects with electrical charges can attract small pieces of paper and the like. It was a French scientist named du Fay who later discovered that there are actually two electrical charges—positive and negative.
F He also questioned traditional astronomical beliefs. Though a Copernican, he did not state explicitly whether the Earth is at the centre of the universe or in orbit around the Sun. However, he believed that stars are not equidistant from the Earth but have their own Earth-like planets orbiting around them. The Earth itself is like a giant magnet, which is also why compasses always point north: they align with the planet's polarity. He likened the polarity of a magnet to the polarity of the Earth and built an entire magnetic philosophy on this analogy. In his explanation, magnetism is the soul of the Earth. Thus a perfectly spherical lodestone, when aligned with the Earth's poles, would wobble all by itself in 24 hours. Further, he believed that the Sun and other stars wobble just as the Earth does around a crystal core, and he speculated that the Moon might also be a magnet caused to orbit by its magnetic attraction to the Earth. This was perhaps the first proposal that a force might cause a heavenly orbit.
G His research method was revolutionary in that he used experiments rather than pure logic and reasoning, as the ancient Greek philosophers had done. This represented a new attitude towards scientific investigation; until then, systematic experiments were not in fashion. Because of this scientific attitude, together with his contribution to our knowledge of magnetism, a unit of magnetomotive force—also known as magnetic potential—was named the gilbert in his honour. His approach of careful observation and experimentation, rather than reliance on authoritative opinion or deductive philosophy, laid the very foundation for modern science.
Questions 1–7
Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs, A–G.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i–x, in boxes 1–7 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Early years of Gilbert
ii What was new about his scientific research method
iii The development of chemistry
iv Questioning traditional astronomy
v Pioneers of early science
vi Professional and social recognition
vii Becoming the president of the Royal Society
viii The great works of Gilbert
ix His discovery about magnetism
x His change of focus
- 1
Paragraph A
- 2
Paragraph B
- 3
Paragraph C
- 4
Paragraph D
- 5
Paragraph E
- 6
Paragraph F
- 7
Paragraph G
Questions 8–10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 8–10 on your answer sheet, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
- 8
Gilbert is less famous than he should be.
- A. TRUE
- B. FALSE
- C. NOT GIVEN
- 9
Gilbert was famous as a doctor before he was employed by the Queen.
- 10
Gilbert lost faith in the medical theories of his time.
Questions 11–13
Choose THREE letters, A–F.
Write the correct letters in boxes 11–13 on your answer sheet.
- 11–13
Which THREE of the following are parts of Gilbert's discovery?
- A. Metal can be transformed into another.
- B. Garlic can remove magnetism.
- C. Metals can be magnetised.
- D. Stars are at different distances from the Earth.
- E. The Earth wobbles on its axis.
- F. There are two charges of electricity.
Reading Passage 2: The Role Of Mothers In The Origins Of Music
(A) In a recent lecture Richard Parncutt, a professor of systematic musicology at the University of Graz, Austria, discussed the idea that music originated from ‘motherese’—the playful voices mothers adopt when speaking to infants and toddlers. According to the theory, evolutionary growth in human brain size between one and two million years ago led to earlier births, more fragile infants, and a vital need for stronger bonds between mothers and their newborns. According to Parncutt, ‘motherese’ arose as a way to strengthen this maternal bond and to help infants survive. ‘If babies were born earlier, it is clear they would need better care in order to survive... this would involve the baby communicating its state and needs more clearly to the mother,’ he says. Parncutt adds that this makes it very likely that motherese developed as an evolutionary adaptation, and that there is a large body of contemporary empirical evidence supporting the musical characteristics of motherese.
(B) Although it might appear amusing—or even nonsensical—at first glance, ‘motherese’ is actually a complex and refined form of communication. It contains structural musical elements such as rhythm and melody, and codes that babies and mothers understand. It also contains cross-cultural similarities with regard to the physical gestures and movements it incorporates—an important consideration when examining the origin of music. ‘The sonic-gestural vocabulary conveys to both mother and infant information about the present physical and emotional condition of each, along with the current nature of interaction between them,’ states Parncutt. ‘Here, emotions such as surprise and disappointment are learned for the first time in a social and musical context. It is about survival in that it motivates the mother to care for the infant and gives her information about the infant’s needs.’ For example, mothers can understand when their babies are tired or hungry. Motherese also helps infants to acquire language.
(C) Parncutt explains that a fetus begins hearing nearly four months before birth, as it regularly hears its mother’s voice, heartbeat, and digestive sounds—all of which provide information about its mother’s emotional state. After birth, the baby recognises these sound patterns and its mother’s correlating mood. Gary McPherson, head of the University of Melbourne’s School of Music, reiterates the importance of this prenatal association, saying that music is the very first form of intelligence to reveal itself—even before birth.
(D) However, there are several competing theories about the origins of music. Parncutt developed a grading system to assess these theories, the objective being to measure their validity against a set of criteria which he called ‘universal aspects of music’. Some theories suggest music originated as a form of sexual selection, similar to a peacock’s tail, used to attract mates. Others propose it evolved to enhance social cohesion and cooperation within larger groups, or that it was a byproduct of other evolutionary adaptations with no specific survival purpose of its own. Parncutt’s system graded each theory based on its ability to explain music’s emotional power, its presence in all known cultures, and its apparent lack of a direct survival function compared to language.
(E) When evaluated against these criteria, Parncutt argues that the motherese theory provides the most comprehensive explanation. It accounts for the deep emotional connection inherent in music by linking it to the primal bond between mother and child. Furthermore, because caregiving for infants is a human universal, the theory naturally explains why music is found in all cultures around the world. The playful, non-utilitarian nature of motherese also mirrors the aesthetic and seemingly non-functional aspects of music itself, addressing the question of why music exists beyond strict survival needs.
(F) Nevertheless, the evidence supporting the motherese theory remains far from conclusive. Sandra Trehub, a psychologist at the University of Toronto Mississauga who has studied motherese extensively, warns that every account of music's beginnings is speculative: vocal music, like speech, leaves no physical trace, so none of these theories can ever be proven. A further objection is that the theory says little about music which is not vocal. Neil McLachlan, a music psychologist at the University of Melbourne, argues that motherese may well be the earliest source, but that musical behaviours are likely to have arisen from a plurality of demands spread across history, pointing to rhythmic traditions that developed independently of infant care. Parncutt himself concedes that the evidence is inconclusive and that a combination of factors may be responsible. Set against the alternatives, however, he maintains that his own account is the least speculative, observing that no rival theory has anything definite to say about the link between music and religion that appears in every culture.
Questions 14–19
Reading Passage 2 has six sections, A–F.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i–ix, in boxes 14–19 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i A universal explanation for music's nature
ii The first sounds a baby hears
iii A biological change that created a need
iv Comparing the motherese theory to other ideas
v A sophisticated form of musical communication
vi A system for evaluating different theories
vii The role of fathers in infant development
viii The initial proposal of a maternal source for music
ix Music as a tool for social cooperation
- 14
Section A
- 15
Section B
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Section C
- 17
Section D
- 18
Section E
- 19
Section F
Questions 20–22
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 20–22 on your answer sheet.
Parncutt suggests that the growth of the human brain resulted in babies being born (20) ________
Motherese is considered a type of evolutionary (21) ________
According to Gary McPherson, musical intelligence is present even (22) ________
Questions 23–26
Complete the summary using the list of words, A–H, below.
Write the correct letter, A–H, in boxes 23–26 on your answer sheet.
Parncutt's Evaluation of Competing Theories
Parncutt created a grading system to assess different theories of music's origin based on universal aspects of music.
Some competing theories propose that music functioned as a mechanism for (23) ________,
or that it was useful for building (24) ________ within communities.
Parncutt's own theory, centred on motherese, received a high grade because it explains music's (25) ________ connection and its presence across all cultures.
It also aligns with music's (26) ________ quality, which resembles the playful interaction between a mother and her infant.
List of Words
A emotional
B social cohesion
C sexual selection
D survival function
E aesthetic
F universal
G prenatal
H rhythmic
Reading Passage 3: The origin of language
The archaeologist Stephen Mithen talks about the ideas behind his new book on the origin of language.
(A) Theories on the origin and evolution of language have been a major area of my research for many years. By 1859, when British scientist Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species, there was already a great deal of interest in this subject. However, the debate became plagued by strange theories, so much so that in 1866 the influential Société de Linguistique de Paris banned all discussions about the origin of language. The ban lasted for more than a century, before a surge of research began during the 1990s. Linguists, psychologists, anthropologists and archaeologists now frequently debate the origin of language and have published many articles and books on this topic. And yet, despite almost frenzied activity, limited progress has been made.
(B) I believe there are four reasons for this. The first is an insufficient concern with the archaeological and fossil proof of the brains and behaviour of our human ancestors. Many theories to date rely on an assumed association between brain size and language abilities, without acknowledging the problem this creates: fossil evidence indicates that the Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans, Homo sapiens, but archaeological evidence indicates that the Neanderthals lacked a capacity for language. So something is seriously amiss with those theories.
(C) That 'something' might relate to the second reason for limited progress: insufficient concern with the other major aural and vocal communication system of modern humans: music. Even though the Société de Linguistique de Paris had nothing to say about studying the origin of music, academics appear to have had a self-imposed ban, with limited discussion of this issue during the 19th and 20th centuries. However, there are notable exceptions that should be acknowledged. One is the aforementioned Charles Darwin who, in his 1871 book on human evolution, The Descent of Man, devoted several pages to the development of music. Another is the renowned ethnomusicologist John Blacking, whose 1973 book, How Musical is Man?, broached the idea that music is an inherent and universal human quality.
(D) The origin of music deserves as much attention as that of language, as we cannot treat one without the other. Those writers who had evidently annoyed the Société de Linguistique de Paris were quite aware of this. For them, music and language were intimately linked; the French writer and philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau's On the Origin of Language (1781) was a reflection on both music and language. In contrast, Morten Christiansen and Simon Kirby's book, Language Evolution (2000), which they conceived as 'a definitive book on the subject', failed to mention music in any of its 17 chapters. Those authors have an important lesson to learn from Rousseau and other writers of his time who addressed the origin of language.
(E) Music is a universal feature of human society and plays a significant role in the lives of all individuals. Indeed, music is perhaps in even greater need of study than language: the latter has a self-evident function—the transmission of information—and can be readily accepted as a product of evolution, even if its specific evolutionary history remains unclear. But what is the point of music?
(F) That question leads directly to a third reason for our lack of progress in understanding how language evolved, and indeed the human mind in general: an insufficient concern with emotion. If music is about anything, it is about expressing emotion. But while archaeologists have put significant effort into examining the intellectual capacities of our ancestors, their emotional lives have been sorely neglected. This has contributed to the neglect of music, which, in turn, has constrained our understanding of language.
(G) There is one further reason why progress has been limited: those who have been most influential regarding the evolution of language have simply got it wrong, and misled everyone else. Linguist Derek Bickerton has made an important contribution towards our understanding of the origin of language by bringing his profound knowledge of linguistics to the discussions that have occurred. But Bickerton's idea that the precursor of modern language consisted of words strung together with limited, if any, grammar is, I believe, fundamentally mistaken. Bickerton refers to this precursor as 'proto-language' and suggests that it was similar to the type of language spoken by young children today, and mastered by apes through the use of computer keyboards. This idea has dominated the field of language origins for the last two decades, and is one that I once found persuasive. But I now understand that it is not only flawed but has severely limited the progress that should have been made.
(H) My book therefore provides an alternative view, one that draws on the ideas of a linguist who has, I believe, identified the true nature of proto-language. Her name is Alison Wray. She argues that proto-language was 'holistic' rather than compositional in character. By this she means that the precursor to language was a communication system composed of 'messages' rather than words; each message was uniquely associated with an arbitrary meaning, as are the utterances of language today. But in Wray's proto-language, they were not composed out of smaller units of meaning (i.e. words) which could be combined together using a rule system (i.e. grammar) to make more complex messages with emergent meanings. For Wray, proto-language was semantically complex and agrammatical. I believe this insight enables us to understand the origin of music as well as language, and to relate both to the emotional lives of our human ancestors.
Questions 27–31
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27–31 on your answer sheet.
- 27
In the first paragraph, what does the writer suggest about the origin of language?
- A. Too many branches of science have been involved in its study.
- B. The Société de Linguistique de Paris instigated research in this area.
- C. The lack of progress is surprising given the amount of work being done.
- D. Most progress in the study of language was made between 1859 and 1866.
- 28
What is the ‘problem’ referred to in the second paragraph?
- A. Some current theories are based on conflicting evidence.
- B. There is insufficient fossil evidence to reach a conclusion.
- C. Fossil evidence suggests that Homo sapiens had larger brains than Neanderthals.
- D. Archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthals were able to talk.
- 29
What does the writer suggest about Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s work in 1781?
- A. Modern theorists should pay more attention to his approach.
- B. His ideas supported those of the Société de Linguistique de Paris.
- C. His ideas were mirrored in a later book called Language Evolution.
- D. His ideas are too outdated to be of any relevance today.
- 30
What is the writer’s current view of Derek Bickerton’s ideas?
- A. They have had little impact on the study of language.
- B. They have helped the study of linguistics to progress.
- C. They are not accepted by the majority of linguists.
- D. The assumption behind them is wrong.
- 31
In the final paragraph, the writer concludes that Alison Wray’s ideas will help establish a link between
- A. grammar and meaning.
- B. messages and proto-language.
- C. language, music and emotions.
- D. proto-language and modern semantics.
Questions 32–37
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A–H, below.
Write the correct letter, A–H, in boxes 32–37 on your answer sheet.
List of Sentence Endings
A suggested music was an essential part of every individual.
B made no link between music and language in a comprehensive study.
C believes that early language was very musical.
D felt that the origin of language should not be debated.
E states that early language was made up of basic words used in an unsystematic way.
F devoted 17 chapters of a book to music.
G believes that proto-language had no individual words.
H referred to music in part of a book about the development of human beings.
- 32
The Société de Linguistique de Paris
- 33
Charles Darwin
- 34
John Blacking
- 35
Christiansen and Kirby
- 36
Derek Bickerton
- 37
Alison Wray
Questions 38–40
Choose THREE letters, A–G.
Write the correct letters in boxes 38–40 on your answer sheet.
- 38–40
According to the writer, which THREE of the following areas have not been studied enough in order to understand the origin of language?
- A. evidence from prehistoric times
- B. intelligence
- C. individual sounds
- D. music
- E. emotions
- F. human intellect
- G. children’s language
Answer sheet
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Answer key
1. v
Paragraph A is best matched with heading v because it discusses a sophisticated form of communication, showing how the subject is more advanced than simple signals.
2. i
Paragraph B fits heading i as it gives a universal explanation, talking about something that applies everywhere or to everyone.
3. vi
Paragraph C matches heading vi because it describes a system for evaluating different theories, comparing and judging them.
4. x
Paragraph D is about x, which is music as a tool for survival, as it explains how music could help humans survive.
5. ix
Paragraph E is best with heading ix since it discusses music as a tool for survival, focusing on its practical use.
6. iv
Paragraph F fits heading iv because it compares the motherese theory to other ideas, showing differences and similarities.
7. ii
Paragraph G matches heading ii as it talks about the first sounds a baby hears, focusing on early experiences.
8. A
The answer is TRUE because the passage says Gilbert is 'less famous than he should be,' meaning he deserves more recognition.
9. A
The answer is TRUE because the passage states Gilbert was already famous as a doctor before working for the Queen.
10. C
The answer is NOT GIVEN because the passage does not say if Gilbert lost faith in the medical theories of his time.
11. C / D / E
C, D, and E are correct because the passage says Gilbert discovered metals can be magnetised, stars are at different distances, and the Earth wobbles on its axis. Option B is tempting but wrong because the passage does not say garlic can remove magnetism.
12. C / D / E
13. C / D / E
14. iii
15. v
16. ii
17. vi
18. i
19. iv
20. earlier
21. adaptation
22. before birth
23. C
24. B
25. A
26. E
27. C
28. A
29. A
30. D
31. C
32. D
33. H
34. A
35. B
36. E
37. G
38. A / D / E
39. A / D / E
40. A / D / E