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Reading Passage 1: The Pyramid of Cestius
A 2,000-year-old pyramid in the city of Rome has been restored by archaeologists. Though Rome draws tourists from around the world to its many impressive sites, one notable monument there has never attracted nearly as much interest: the Pyramid of Cestius. But why would there be a pyramid in Italy? After the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 B.C., Egyptian architectural style became the fashion in Rome. Though obelisks and other monuments inspired by Egypt’s great pyramids sprang up around the city, only two actual pyramids are known to have been built. The only one left standing, the Pyramid of Cestius, was designed as the burial pyramid for a Roman politician named Caius Cestius, who ordered that the building work be completed within a period of 330 days. Construction took place at some point between 18 B.C. and 12 B.C. Cestius’ pyramid had a layer of white Carrara marble on the outside, and was constructed from brick held together by a basic kind of cement on the inside. One of the things that strikes you when you look at the pyramid is how steep it is, so that the shape of Cestius’ pyramid is quite unlike that of typical Egyptian ones. This is a difference that could have been the result of inaccurate information sent back to Rome by soldiers who saw the pyramids in person in Egypt. Alternatively, Roman builders could have drawn inspiration from the pyramids in Nubia, a region located in what is today northern Sudan and southern Egypt. At the time of its construction, since there was a strict Roman law prohibiting the placement of tombs within the city itself, the Pyramid of Cestius would have stood in the countryside. Rome grew enormously during the next two centuries, and, by the 3rd century A.D., the pyramid would have been surrounded by buildings. We also know that in the 3rd century A.D., the Pyramid of Cestius was hidden behind a high wall on the orders of Emperor Aurelian; this probably helped it survive throughout the centuries to come, even as other ancient monuments disappeared. By the Middle Ages, the pyramid was covered in vegetation and thick dirt, and popular myth had developed that it might be a tomb for one of the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who were regarded as the men who had established the city of Rome. Cestius’ actual tomb within the pyramid and the inscription identifying the pyramid as his weren’t rediscovered until the 1660s, when the pyramid underwent restoration. During excavations, when trees and plants were cleared away, two marble bases were found in front of the pyramid, as well as fragments of bronze statues that had once stood on them, on either side of the pyramid. The people employed to excavate the pyramid did not find the urn that would have contained Cestius’ remains, but they did come across a tunnel. It was quite possible, therefore, that robbers had at some earlier time removed the contents of the tomb. But while some of the features of Cestius’ tomb no longer exist, at least the pyramid itself has survived.
Today, the foundations of Cestius’ pyramid rest below street level near an intersection with heavy traffic, so that passing tourists and residents could easily fail to notice its full height of 119 feet. Across the intersection is the Piramide station, located on Line B of the Rome Metro. In 2011, the Japanese clothing-company entrepreneur Yuzo Yagi, president of Yagi Tsusho Ltd, announced his intention to help the Italian government pay for an ambitious renovation of the Pyramid of Cestius. ‘It’s an act of gratitude,’ he later told journalists. ‘Our company has grown thanks to Italy.’ Work began at the site shortly after Yagi signed an official agreement with the Special Superintendency for the Archaeological Heritage of Rome, and was completed ahead of schedule thanks to his 2-million-euro contribution. As archaeologist Leonardo Guarnieri explained to journalists, officials are now conducting tours of the newly renovated pyramid twice a month by reservation. Visitors who take advantage of the tour can make their way through a narrow corridor in order to enter the burial chamber itself. It is within these walls that they can admire the frescoes: watercolour paintings typical of the time. In the chamber, it is possible to make out four frescoes of the winged Roman goddess of war, Victoria, a figure from Roman legend, as well as a series of vases, the type that would have been used for special rituals and purification purposes. We know from the writings of earlier visitors that there used to be more here, but the majority have disappeared over time. Only one problem remains now that the restoration is complete. The white exterior of the Pyramid of Cestius will have to be cleaned every few months to remove the layer of urban pollution. A team of free-climbers will be employed to do the job, in order to avoid placing builders’ scaffolding around the newly welcoming monument.
- 1
The Pyramid of Cestius has always been one of Rome’s most popular tourist attractions.
- 2
The construction of the Pyramid was completed before Cestius’ death.
- 3
In the Middle Ages, people thought an original founder of Rome was buried in the Pyramid of Cestius.
- 4
Today, the height of the Pyramid is something that tourists and residents immediately notice.
- 5
Japanese businessman Yuzo Yagi was an admirer of both Italian and Egyptian architecture.
- 6
The restoration of the Pyramid of Cestius, which was funded by Yuzo Yagi, finished earlier than expected.
- 7
Most of the original frescoes inside Cestius’ tomb have survived to this day.
- 8
it was made from ______, cement and marble
- 9
its ______ is different to the pyramids found in Egypt
- 10
it was originally built in the ______ as building tombs in the city was forbidden
- 11
In the 1660s, some broken ______ were found next to it
- 12
the ______ inside the tomb suggests that robbers had been there
- 13
climbers are helping to get rid of signs of ______
Reading Passage 2: Antarctic research
Thirteen nations took part in the recent International Polar Year. New Zealand’s contribution to International Polar Year was a 52-day voyage by the ship Tangaroa in order to conduct research in Antarctica’s Ross Sea. Lead scientist Mary Livingston emphasises just what a multi-faceted expedition this was, bringing together zoologists, oceanographers, meteorologists and other scientists from the Ministry of Fisheries, the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research, the National Museum and various universities, to study life beneath the seas of Antarctica. Competition for berths – the ship can carry 44 people, including 13 crew – was fierce. Voyage leader Stu Hanchet says, ‘We could have filled the science positions four times over … we had so many people requesting a berth … We ended up with a really strong team.’
It would be hard to overstate how hostile the Antarctic environment is for scientists. The Tangaroa’s captain, Graham Leachman, explains that the Ross Sea is subject to katabatic winds that sweep down off the Antarctic continent to create rough seas. Another danger is the possibility of the ship colliding with floating ice. ‘Even though the ship’s officers use all sorts of high-tech equipment … none of it can tell you how thick the ice is,’ says Leachman, ‘and you still can’t beat looking out of the window.’ In the dark, he says, you can’t tell how thick the ice is, but if you can see its colour, it’s possible to estimate. This is why he prefers sailing in summer, when the hours of daylight in these high latitudes are longest, even though this plays tricks with his passengers’ body clocks.
Analysis of what the expedition found continues, but it’s likely that several new species have been discovered and numerous other secrets revealed about life 3,000 metres below the surface. ‘We have collected huge worms and strange crustaceans,’ says Livingston, ‘but most impressive of all were the starfish that measured more than half a metre across – that’s most abnormal for creatures belonging to this species.’ This phenomenon of Antarctic seas is called ‘gigantism’ – the fact that some species grow to unusually large sizes. Livingston suggests various possible causes for gigantism including the extreme cold, few predators and high levels of oxygen in the seawater, but as yet no final determination can be made. Another interesting discovery was that in some places every inch of the sea floor was covered with life, whereas elsewhere icebergs have scoured out deep scars and ravines in the sea floor as they go by.
By using deep-sea trawl nets, high-definition cameras and water samplers, the team has revealed that many of the creatures that live at extreme depths have a bizarre appearance. Among them were spotted tunicates, plankton-eating animals that are slender structures that appear to be fashioned from glass. The most fearsome-looking fish was the Southern Ocean daggertooth, a species that is ‘monocyclic’, meaning the fish die after the first spawning. They are also unusual for being capable of shedding their teeth and growing a new set. Another predatory fish brought to the surface was the stareater, an extraordinary species that has an appendage like a piece of cord hanging from its chin. In these deep, dark waters, this glows red and attracts prey to swim within striking distance. Just as impressive and much more beautiful were the basket stars, a species related to starfish that lives on the seabed. The basket stars’ five arms branch out numerous times to form a spectacular fan-like structure which they turn to face into the current so that food is brought into their embrace.
But whatever exciting discoveries were made, everyday life onboard ship in the Ross Sea is unrelenting. Most people share a cabin with one other person – they’re allocated so that as one person begins their 12 hours off duty, the other occupant is starting work on deck. The fresh food runs out in a few days and after that most provisions are frozen, canned or dried. Expedition general manager Fred Smits recognises that the cook has an essential role in ensuring the well-being of those onboard. ‘When you are at sea for so long,’ he says, ‘you think a lot about your next meal.’
Perhaps most controversially, one of the precious berths on the Tangaroa was taken up by cameraman Max Quinn, who filmed a documentary about the voyage. Quinn’s inclusion wasn’t welcomed at first. ‘Scientists by nature,’ Livingston says, ‘tend to be camera-shy and quiet. They’re not into having cameras there, so it was difficult getting everyone’s permission and agreement.’ But in the end Quinn fitted in very well. ‘The trick,’ he says, ‘is to mostly film the scientists at work, in their professional roles … rather than eating their breakfast.’ He knows when not to intrude. The documentary is a window on a trip few people get to make and also a peek into what research really looks like. ‘Science,’ says Livingston, ‘is intrepid, more so than people realise. It’s not necessarily examining dry samples in the laboratory, but can also mean braving the elements on deck. That’s what the documentary captures, the sense of real people with real lives.’
- 14
14 details of some equipment used by the scientists
- 15
15 a description of the challenging sailing conditions in Antarctica
- 16
16 information about the composition of the scientific group
- 17
17 the identity of a potentially unpopular person on the ship
- 18
18 The expedition’s findings: Analysis continues of the expedition’s remarkable discoveries, including a ________, very notable for its unusual width.
- 19
19 The reasons why creatures grow so large at great depths in Antarctica may include the highly oxygenated water, the temperature, or the small number of ________.
- 20
20 A further fascinating finding was the existence of canyons in the seabed caused by passing ________.
- 21
21 Many creatures living at great depth look very strange, such as tunicates, which seem to be made of ________.
- 22
22 One frightening-looking fish species is characterised by loss of its ________ and the fact that it spawns only once.
- 23
23 Another fish has something like a length of string attached to its ________ that assists with hunting.
- 24
24 Mary Livingston
- A. The repetitive food was one of the hardships of the voyage.
- B. Respecting your subjects’ privacy gets the best results.
- C. The summer is the best time to sail these waters.
- D. The kitchen is one of the most important parts of the ship.
- E. Being separated from family was difficult.
- F. The nature of scientific work may surprise some people.
- G. More applications to join the group were received than there were places.
- 25
25 Stu Hanchet
- A. The repetitive food was one of the hardships of the voyage.
- B. Respecting your subjects’ privacy gets the best results.
- C. The summer is the best time to sail these waters.
- D. The kitchen is one of the most important parts of the ship.
- E. Being separated from family was difficult.
- F. The nature of scientific work may surprise some people.
- G. More applications to join the group were received than there were places.
- 26
26 Max Quinn
- A. The repetitive food was one of the hardships of the voyage.
- B. Respecting your subjects’ privacy gets the best results.
- C. The summer is the best time to sail these waters.
- D. The kitchen is one of the most important parts of the ship.
- E. Being separated from family was difficult.
- F. The nature of scientific work may surprise some people.
- G. More applications to join the group were received than there were places.
Reading Passage 3: Marketing And Mind Control
While there had been a long tradition of giving rings as a commitment to marry, the custom of giving diamond engagement rings was in large part manufactured by one of the most effective marketing campaigns in history. In the early 1900s, diamond sales were declining, posing a serious problem for the company that essentially had control over the diamond market. In 1938, this company hired an advertising agency, which proposed reshaping social attitudes toward diamonds. As well as magazines showing film stars draped in diamonds, the agency arranged for movies to incorporate diamond engagement rings into their plots. The campaign culminated with the slogan: 'A diamond is forever.' At the time, the approach was unique. Rather than pushing a brand, the objective was to promote diamonds as the symbol of everlasting love. This was achieved by exploiting the associative nature of the brain: associating neurons activated by the concept of 'love' with neurons that encoded the concept of 'diamonds.' By 1941, diamond sales had increased by 55%.
Advertising comes in many forms, from blatant neon signs to subtly embedded products in movies. In each case, the goal is to mould our habits, desires and opinions. Our visual system is targeted by an avalanche of information on the internet, street posters, and billboards and in movie theatres. Our auditory system submits to catchy radio jingles and telemarketers. More surreptitiously, our olfactory system is targeted by variations of vanilla and citrus perfumes aimed at enticing us to linger in a retail outlet. It is difficult to measure how effective these campaigns are, but as in the 'A diamond is forever' campaign, they can be so successful that they change the fabric of our culture. In the case of bottled water, we are swayed by advertising into paying for something that we can obtain for free. Most people cannot distinguish bottled from tap water, much less between brands of bottled water, which is why you rarely hear of a bottled water company proposing a blind taste test.
So why is marketing such an effective mind-control technique? It is interesting to consider whether other animals exhibit anything analogous to humans' susceptibility to advertising. If we provide a lab rat with two types of cereal, it will consume approximately the same amount of each. However, if we put that rat with another rat that spent its day eating just one type, when faced with a choice, our rat will now show a preference for the same type as the other rat was eating. Psychologists call this 'socially transmitted food preference.' What many regard as the first documented examples of cultural learning in primates started with a clever monkey that lived in a colony of Japanese monkeys on the island of Koshima. She began taking her dirt-covered sweet potatoes to the river to wash them before eating them. Upon seeing this, a few other open-minded monkeys picked up on the idea. Potato washing then spread from monkey to monkey and, over the course of a few years, most monkeys were eating clean potatoes. Humans are clearly not the only animals to engage in imitation and social learning.
Learning by observation can be an extraordinarily valuable brain feature; this is how we learn to communicate and perform motor skills as well as deal with many everyday problems. For example, a newcomer struggling to purchase tickets and navigate the subway system in a foreign city may step back to learn from the people nearby. Humans and other primates exhibit multiple forms of imitative learning and this is called cultural transmission.
A component of advertising relies on the marketer's ability to tap into the brain’s propensity for imitation. Anybody who has watched TV knows advertisements are disproportionately populated with attractive, successful-looking individuals. If we are going to imitate someone, we are more inclined to imitate those who appear to be popular and appealing.
Although not all researchers are convinced by the findings, a number of studies indicate that some animals also imitate dominant members of their group. Primatologist Frans de Waal provides anecdotal evidence of preferential imitation among chimpanzees. He noted that in one particular group the dominant male was hurt and was limping as a result. Soon, unlikely if a non-dominant male had been injured.
Imitation is undoubtedly an invaluable ability, but often our propensity to imitate generalises indiscriminately, leading to poor decisions. When athlete Dick Fosbury revolutionised the high jump by jumping over the bar backward in 1968, imitators obviously copied his jumping style, not his brand of sports shoes. However, today, sports people appear in advertisements asking us to buy the laptops or sports drinks that they promote. Rationally, we know these people's success did not depend on these products, so it seems our propensity to purchase products relates more to neural programs that evolved to encourage imitation of those further up the social ladder. Today, companies engage in stealth marketing campaigns in which people are paid to frequent bars or websites to covertly promote certain products. Companies also perform studies in which they track the eye movements of people viewing displays, and carefully craft names, packages and jingles associated with their products. While we may like to believe that manipulation on a grand scale would not be possible, that's not to say that advertising is innately harmful. To the contrary, the marketing of products or ideas is essential to human culture. The point is that we should ensure our choices reflect our actual goals and desires, and we must distinguish between the dissemination of information which is for our own good, and our manipulation for the benefit of companies.
- 27
According to the writer, which marketing technique attempts to make consumers stay in a shop for longer?
- A. playing appealing music
- B. emitting pleasant scents
- C. displaying attractive posters
- D. making in-store announcements
- 28
The writer mentions bottled water in order to show that
- A. consumers buy it because of the fact that it is marketed.
- B. people purchase it despite the fact that it has no taste.
- C. marketers need not do taste tests when a campaign is effective.
- D. tests prove that people cannot differentiate it from tap water.
- 29
According to the writer, socially transmitted food preference occurs when
- A. only dominant members of an animal group influence what others eat.
- B. the same types of animals naturally prefer the same types of food.
- C. animals are influenced by what any other animals of the same species eat.
- D. a food type is more desirable because an animal views that food as scarce.
- 30
According to the writer, how is learning by observation and imitation a useful feature of the brain?
- A. it helps people overcome challenges.
- B. positive models can influence social behaviour.
- C. it can give an advantage when communicating with others.
- D. cultural norms and relationships can be understood more easily.
- 31
According to the writer, how does television advertising exploit the human tendency to imitate others?
- A. It shows buying behaviour that marketers want to encourage in viewers.
- B. It features people who have a desirable image.
- C. It shows older people whom teenagers admire.
- D. It features successful people endorsing products responsible for their success.
- 32
The diamond campaign worked by making a connection in people's minds between diamonds and luxury.
- 33
People are more aware of visual marketing than auditory marketing.
- 34
The campaign advertising diamonds had a positive influence on society.
- 35
There is still some uncertainty about whether animals copy the behaviour of the most powerful animals among them.
- 36
Consumers make a logical connection between celebrities' achievements and the products they promote.
- 37
The behaviour of the monkeys on the island of Koshima showed that
- A. people imitated behaviour that was linked with success.
- B. younger animals of a certain species are more likely to imitate each other.
- C. an animal would imitate another that had higher status.
- D. imitation of popular sportspeople has occurred for many decades.
- E. products are marketed to potential consumers who are unaware that marketing is occurring.
- F. animals can develop new habits by observation.
- G. incentives are provided for consumers who behave in a certain way.
- 38
Primatologist Frans de Waal found that
- A. people imitated behaviour that was linked with success.
- B. younger animals of a certain species are more likely to imitate each other.
- C. an animal would imitate another that had higher status.
- D. imitation of popular sportspeople has occurred for many decades.
- E. products are marketed to potential consumers who are unaware that marketing is occurring.
- F. animals can develop new habits by observation.
- G. incentives are provided for consumers who behave in a certain way.
- 39
Dick Fosbury is mentioned in order to show that
- A. people imitated behaviour that was linked with success.
- B. younger animals of a certain species are more likely to imitate each other.
- C. an animal would imitate another that had higher status.
- D. imitation of popular sportspeople has occurred for many decades.
- E. products are marketed to potential consumers who are unaware that marketing is occurring.
- F. animals can develop new habits by observation.
- G. incentives are provided for consumers who behave in a certain way.
- 40
A feature of some modern marketing campaigns is that
- A. people imitated behaviour that was linked with success.
- B. younger animals of a certain species are more likely to imitate each other.
- C. an animal would imitate another that had higher status.
- D. imitation of popular sportspeople has occurred for many decades.
- E. products are marketed to potential consumers who are unaware that marketing is occurring.
- F. animals can develop new habits by observation.
- G. incentives are provided for consumers who behave in a certain way.
Xem đáp án
Đáp án
1. FALSE
2. NOT GIVEN
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. NOT GIVEN
6. TRUE
7. FALSE
8. brick
9. shape
10. countryside
11. statues
12. tunnel
13. pollution
14. D
15. B
16. A
17. F
18. starfish
19. predators
20. icebergs
21. glass
22. teeth
23. chin
24. F
25. G
26. B
27. B
28. A
29. C
30. A
31. B
32. NO
33. NOT GIVEN
34. NOT GIVEN
35. YES
36. NO
37. F
38. C
39. A
40. E