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Reading Passage 1: Investing in the Future
The founding and development of many universities has been dependent on philanthropy. This has been true from some of the oldest universities such as Bologna, Oxford and Cambridge in the twelfth century, to relative newcomers like the universities of Harvard and Yale in the seventeenth century. Wealthy merchants gave young institutions money, land, libraries and rare items. Their belief in the value of higher learning is echoed by the growing number of philanthropists whose gifts have helped transform the University of Auckland, the largest university in New Zealand.
In 1884 Mr Justice Gillies made history when he gave $3,000 to the then very young University of Auckland, and so became its original philanthropist. Gillies’ gift was more generous even than those regularly given to New Zealand’s older University of Otago, and was exceptional because Auckland had a smaller population and was less wealthy than the other university cities at that time. However, from the 1930s privately funded prizes and scholarships began to be seen more frequently in Auckland. In that decade a local engineer and former lecturer in engineering, Samuel Crookes, launched a fund to save the engineering school in Auckland, which the state was determined to see discontinued, and raised over $6,500 in three years. Another significant philanthropist, Sir William Goodfellow, made his initial gift to the University in 1947—$50,000 to build the Maclaurin Chapel. Since then, he and succeeding generations of the family have given numerous scholarships and fellowships and established a school within the University bearing the family’s name.
The University had a difficult decade in the 1950s as it was short of equipment, buildings and money. It also had its first taste of international rivalry, when universities in many parts of the world competed to attract first-class lecturers. In Auckland the problem largely resulted from the fact that academic salaries had slipped well behind those available in Britain and Australia, so the strongest candidates tended to be recruited to those countries. But when the new Medical School opened in 1968, it attracted significant gifts for academic positions and equipment from an unusually wide range of donors, including individuals, trusts, charitable foundations, societies and community groups. It also became the permanent home of the Philson Library, which by then consisted of some 8,000 books.
The first of the modern public appeals for funds took place in the 1960s, when Alan Highet built the Student Union complex. This was followed by another appeal in 1983 under the then Chancellor Henry Cooper, who raised $800,000 to celebrate the University’s centenary. These modern campaigns built on the successful campaigns of the past but included a number of new features. There was, of course, the familiar emphasis on donations from individuals, but the modern approach also stressed the importance of bringing the University and business closer together and specifically seeking donations from that sector.
Building on this success, the current “Leading the Way” campaign was launched. It is intended as a drive to secure support for the whole University, with a focus on generating funds to recruit, support and retain the very best staff for the University. The current campaign has raised the whole process of philanthropy to a new level, and changed expectations. The University is investing considerable time and energy in devising new methods of fund-raising both within its local communities and—remembering that New Zealanders love to travel—by looking at campaigns in other parts of the world, and targeting alumni, or former students now living overseas.
“What it taught us,” says John Taylor, Director of External Relations, “was that the campaign had to fit into the Strategic Plan of the University … As we kept talking we realised that we could have a transformative effect on the future of New Zealand by highlighting the potential benefits of high-quality research.” The example Taylor gives is the $4.5 million gift to establish an information centre at the University’s Marine Science laboratory on the coast at Leigh. He stresses that the fund-raising drive was so successful in part because the publicity used at the time highlighted the public benefit from the project.
On the financial side, the University’s Vice-Chancellor, Stuart McCutcheon, explains that a fault they found in their campaigns actually turned out to be a stroke of good fortune. “In the course of developing these new fund-raising systems,” he says, “we have come to realise that there has been considerable giving to the University that has not been previously recorded through our Advancement Office … This has been in the order of $10 million per year over the campaign period.” The good news from this error is that at the recent Chancellor’s dinner it was announced that the campaign target was now being increased from $100 million to $150 million, and would recognise all sources of philanthropic support. It’s a long way from Gillies’ first $3,000 gift.
- 1
Harvard and Yale were the first universities to benefit from philanthropy.
- 2
Merchants liked to donate to the same universities they attended themselves.
- 3
The first gift to the University of Auckland came in 1884.
- 4
The University of Otago often received larger gifts than Gillies’ gift to Auckland.
- 5
In the 1930s the government wanted to close Auckland’s engineering school.
- 6
After raising $6,500, Crookes returned to academic life.
- 7
In the 1950s the best lecturers chose to work in Britain or Australia rather than Auckland.
- 8
A single philanthropist was responsible for the new Medical School.
- 9
Henry Cooper’s campaign marked the ______ of the University.
- 10
This appeal is raising money to invest in the University’s ______.
- 11
Gifts are being sought from graduates who are located ______.
- 12
Some donations had not been ______ by the University.
- 13
There is a new financial ______ for the campaign.
Reading Passage 2: Jellyfish - The Dominant Species
A
Jellyfish have become the curse of beach holidays, permeating every ocean on the globe, thriving in the Arctic and the tropics. In an ever-changing world where other species struggle to endure, jellyfish populations are on the rise.
To the untrained eye, these creatures drift aimlessly on the oceans' currents and appear benign. In addition, they lack sharp claws, piercing teeth or even a brain. Despite this, they are armed with an amazing arsenal of weapons, especially the stinging power of their tentacles. As a result, jellyfish are among the most-feared, least-understood creatures in the seas.
B
According to Dr Monty Graham, a jellyfish scientist at the University of South Alabama, US, 'Jellyfish are a pretty good group of animals to track coastal ecosystems. When you start to see jellyfish numbers grow, that usually indicates a stressed system.' While populations appear to be down this year, Dr Graham sees 'a statistically solid increase' over the longer term.
This increase first gained attention in the 1980s when a huge number of jellyfish, Atlantic Ocean natives named Mnemiopsis leidyi, devastated the Black Sea, an ecosystem already weakened by overfishing of anchovies. Scientists believe that this species of jellyfish came in on the bottom of a ship and then rapidly multiplied, feeding on anchovy eggs and the plankton that young fish rely on.
C
Dense jellyfish aggregations can be a natural feature of healthy ocean ecosystems, but a clear picture is now emerging of more severe and frequent jellyfish outbreaks worldwide. Dr Anthony Richardson, from the University of Queensland, Australia, explains that once jellyfish gain a foothold, if conditions are right they can establish a massive population at the expense of other ocean life. The problem is that parts of the ocean might switch from being dominated by fish to being dominated by jellyfish.
D
A study done by Richardson and his colleagues explores the causes behind jellyfish infestation, and the need for swift, decisive action to stem jellyfish takeover. Jellyfish outbreaks are linked directly to human actions, including overfishing, the input of fertilizer and sewage into the ocean, and climate change.
Overfishing has removed fish from marine ecosystems at astounding rates. According to Richardson, this has made it possible for jellyfish to take their place. 'This is because small fish appear to keep jellyfish in check by predation (on jellyfish when they are very small) and competition (when feeding). So, once we remove fish, jellyfish can proliferate.'
Eutrophication is another human-caused change in the ocean that has likely contributed to jellyfish explosions. Eutrophication is an increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in the ocean, largely caused by fertilizer and waste run-off. This leads to algae blooms, which lower oxygen in the marine ecosystem, creating so-called 'dead zones', which have been increasing dramatically around the world. According to Richardson, these low-oxygen waters give jellyfish the advantage. 'Fish avoid low-oxygen waters but jellyfish, having lower oxygen demands, not only survive but can thrive in these conditions as there is less predation and competition from fish.'
E
Furthermore, Richardson and his colleagues speculate that climate change may expand the traditional geographical range of jellyfish. 'As water warms, tropical species are moving towards the poles. Many venomous jellyfish species are tropical and could move into more densely populated subtropical and temperate regions.'
F
Once jellyfish appear en masse in an ecosystem they can make it very difficult for fish to stage a comeback. By feeding on fish, the jellyfish successfully prevent fish from returning to their normal population numbers, says Richardson. 'One can thus think of two alternate states with each being stable: one dominated by fish and the other by jellyfish. Unfortunately, where there is a jellyfish-dominated state then this does not support the nutritional needs of other fish, marine mammals, and seabirds.' In other words an ecosystem that loses fish also loses the species that depend on fish for survival.
This state has been defined as a 'monoculture of jellyfish', an apt analogy since the situation shares similarities with other monocultures. When the rich biodiversity of tropical forests is replaced by plantations growing a single species of tree, an area of rich variety becomes a desert in terms of biodiversity, as do ocean ecosystems when jellyfish become the dominant species.
One result of large jellyfish populations is the economic effect it has had on the fishing industry. In the Gulf of Mexico, shrimp fishermen are struggling with a jellyfish boom that fills nets, causing them to break and resulting in millions of dollars in losses.
G
Experts say that a greater understanding of jellyfish, including their ideal water temperature and feeding habits, is necessary to determine with certainty what is causing the recent massive invasion, and to come up with ways to combat it.
Due to the difficulty of turning ecosystems around once jellyfish have become dominant, Richardson and his colleagues propose focusing on 'prevention rather than cure'. They recommend a halt to overfishing small fish that are vital to keeping jellyfish in check, reducing the amount of fertilizer and sewage running off into the oceans, and finally, if possible, confronting climate change.
- 14
a prediction as to the direction in which the jellyfish population may spread
- 15
a description of some physical characteristics of jellyfish
- 16
an account of the consequences of jellyfish as lone survivors
- 17
suggestions on how to avoid further jellyfish invasions
- 18
The list below gives some effects that jellyfish have had on the world. Which TWO of these effects are mentioned by the writer of the text?
- A. They have damaged the tourism industry in some areas.
- B. They have led to a reduction in the oceans' oxygen levels.
- C. They have contributed to the decline in the Black Sea anchovy population.
- D. They have caused the shrimp business in the Gulf of Mexico to shut down.
- E. They have created financial hardship in the fishing industry.
- 19
Which TWO of the following are possible causes of an increase in jellyfish numbers?
- A. a shortage of small fish in the oceans
- B. the dumping of chemicals into the oceans
- C. a decline in biodiversity in the oceans
- D. more competition among other fish in the oceans
- E. a decrease in seabird populations
- 20
Some fish in the oceans may be unable to sustain their population as the jellyfish eat their __________.
- 21
The state of jellyfish becoming the main ocean species has been named __________.
- 22
Increasing numbers of jellyfish can damage __________ used for commercial fishing.
- 23
Understanding basic facts about jellyfish, such as the __________ of the ocean which suits them best, may help control their numbers.
- 24
Richardson believes it is better to direct attention to __________, instead of just trying to solve existing problems.
Reading Passage 3: Should space be explored by robots or by humans?
The advisability of humans participating directly in space travel continues to cause many debates. There is no doubt that the presence of people on board a space vehicle makes its design much more complex and challenging, and produces a large increase in costs, since safety requirements are greatly increased, and the technology providing necessities for human passengers such as oxygen, food, water must be guaranteed. Moreover, the systems required are bulky and costly, and their complexity increases for long-duration missions. Meanwhile, advances in electronics and computer science allow increasingly complex tasks to be entrusted to robots, and unmanned space probes are becoming lighter, smaller and more convenient.
However, experience has shown that the idea of humans in space is popular with the public. Humans can also be useful; there are many cases when only direct intervention by an astronaut or cosmonaut can correct the malfunction of an automatic device. Astronauts and cosmonauts have proved that they can adapt to conditions of weightlessness and work in space without encountering too many problems, as was seen in the operations to repair and to upgrade the Hubble Space Telescope. One human characteristic which is particularly precious in space missions, and which so far is lacking in robots, is the ability to perform a great variety of tasks. In addition, robots are not good at reacting to situations they have not been specifically prepared for. This is especially important in the case of deep space missions. While, in the case of the Moon, it is possible for someone on Earth to 'tele-operate' a robotic device such as a probe, as the two-way link time is only a couple of seconds, on Mars the two-way link time is several minutes, so sending instructions from Earth is more difficult.
Many of the promises of artificial intelligence are still far from being fulfilled. The construction of machines simulating human logical reasoning moves towards ever more distant dates. The more the performance of computers improves, the more we realise how difficult it is to build machines which display logical abilities. In the past it was confidently predicted that we would soon have fully automated factories in which all operations were performed without any human intervention, and forecasts of the complete substitution of workers by robots in many production areas were made. Today, these perspectives are being revised. It seems that all machines, even the smartest ones, must cooperate with humans. Rather than replacing humans, the present need appears to be for an intelligent machine capable of helping a human operator without replacing him or her. The word 'cobot', from 'collaborative robot', has been invented to designate this type.
A similar trend is also apparent in the field of space exploration. Tasks which were in the past entrusted only to machines are now performed by human beings, sometimes with the aim of using simpler and less costly devices, sometimes to obtain better performance. In many cases, to involve a person in the control loop is a welcome simplification which may lower the cost of a mission without compromising safety. Many operations originally designed to be performed under completely automatic control can be performed more efficiently by astronauts, perhaps helped by their 'cobots'. The human-machine relationship must evolve towards a closer collaboration.
One way this could happen is by adopting the Mars Outposts approach, proposed by the Planetary Society. This would involve sending a number of robotic research stations to Mars, equipped with permanent communications and navigational systems. They would perform research, and establish the infrastructure needed to prepare future landing sites for the exploration of Mars by humans. It has also been suggested that in the most difficult environments, as on Venus or Jupiter, robots could be controlled by human beings located in spaceships which remain in orbit around the planet. In this case the link time for communication between humans and robots would be far less than it would be from Earth.
But if space is to be more than a place to build automatic laboratories or set up industrial enterprises in the vicinity of our planet, the presence of humans is essential. They must learn how to voyage through space towards destinations which will be not only scientific bases but also places to live. If space is a frontier, that frontier must see the presence of people. So the aim for humankind in the future will be not just the exploration of space, but its colonisation. The result of exploring and living in space may be a deep change in the views which humankind has of itself. And this process is already under way. The images of Earth taken from the Moon in the Apollo programme have given humankind a new consciousness of its fragility, its smallness, and its unity. These impressions have triggered a realisation of the need to protect and preserve it, for it is the place in the solar system most suitable for us and above all it is the only place we have, at least for now.
- 25
Paragraph A
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 26
Paragraph B
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 27
Paragraph C
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 28
Paragraph D
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 29
Paragraph E
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 30
Paragraph F
- i. Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation
- ii. The barriers to cooperation in space exploration
- iii. Some limitations of robots in space
- iv. Reduced expectations for space exploration
- v. A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space
- vi. Problems in using humans for space exploration
- vii. The danger to humans of intelligent machines
- viii. Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness
- ix. Possible examples of cooperation in space
- 31
According to the writer, which TWO predictions about artificial intelligence have not yet been fulfilled?
- A. Robots will work independently of humans.
- B. Robots will begin to oppose human interests,
- C. Robots will be used to help humans perform tasks more efficiently.
- D. Robots will think in the same way as humans.
- E. Robots will become too costly to use on space missions.
- 32
Humans in space - the Mars Outposts approach and its implications: For example, when exploring the planet Mars, robots could be used to set up _________ and do initial research before humans arrive.
- 33
In other cases, humans could stay in orbiting _________ and give orders to robots working on the surface of the planet.
- 34
This would increase the speed of _________ with the robots.
- 35
In such ways, robots might be used to work in space in commercial enterprises or _________.
- 36
However, the final aim of humankind may be the _________ of space and this could in turn change people's attitudes towards Earth.
解答を表示
解答
1. FALSE
2. NOT GIVEN
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
6. NOT GIVEN
7. TRUE
8. FALSE
9. centenary
10. staff
11. overseas
12. recorded
13. target
14. E
15. A
16. F
17. G
18. C / E
19. A / B
20. eggs
21. monoculture of jellyfish
22. nets
23. water temperature
24. prevention
25. vi
26. iii
27. i
28. v
29. ix
30. viii
31. A / D
32. infrastructure
33. spaceships
34. communication
35. laboratories
36. colonisation