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Reading Passage 1: The Concept of Childhood in Western Countries
A The history of childhood has been a heated topic in social history since the highly influential book 'Centuries of Childhood', written by French historian Philippe Aries, emerged in 1960. He claimed that 'childhood' is a concept created by modern society.
B Whether childhood is itself a recent invention has been one of the most intensely debated issues in the history of childhood. Historian Philippe Aries asserted that children were regarded as miniature adults, with all the intellect and personality that this implies, in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (up to about the end of the 15th century). After scrutinising medieval pictures and diaries, he concluded that there was no distinction between children and adults for they shared similar leisure activities and work; However, this does not mean children were neglected, forsaken or despised, he argued. The idea of childhood corresponds to awareness about the peculiar nature of childhood, which distinguishes the child from adult, even the young adult. Therefore, the concept of childhood is not to be confused with affection for children.
C Traditionally, children played a functional role in contributing to the family income in the history. Under this circumstance, children were considered to be useful. Back in the Middle Ages, children of 5 or 6 years old did necessary chores for their parents. During the 16th century, children of 9 or 10 years old were often encouraged or even forced to leave their family to work as servants for wealthier families or apprentices for a trade.
D In the 18th and 19th centuries, industrialisation created a new demand for child labour; thus many children were forced to work for a long time in mines, workshops and factories. The issue of whether long hours of labouring would interfere with children’s growing bodies began to perplex social reformers. Some of them started to realise the potential of systematic studies to monitor how far these early deprivations might be influencing children’s development.
E The concerns of reformers gradually had some impact upon the working condition of children. For example, in Britain, the Factory Act of 1833 signified the emergence of legal protection of children from exploitation and was also associated with the rise of schools for factory children. Due partly to factory reform, the worst forms of child exploitation were eliminated gradually. The influence of trade unions and economic changes also contributed to the evolution by leaving some forms of child labour redundant during the 19th century. Initiating children into work as ‘useful’ children was no longer a priority, and childhood was deemed to be a time for play and education for all children instead of a privileged minority. Childhood was increasingly understood as a more extended phase of dependency, development and learning with the delay of the age for starting full-time work. Even so, work continued to play a significant, if less essential, role in children’s lives in the later 19th and 20th centuries. Finally, the ‘useful child’ has become a controversial concept during the first decade of the 21st century, especially in the context of global concern about large numbers of children engaged in child labour.
F The half-time schools established upon the Factory Act of 1833 allowed children to work and attend school. However, a significant proportion of children never attended school in the 1840s, and even if they did, they dropped out by the age of 10 or 11. By the end of the 19th century in Britain, the situation changed dramatically, and schools became the core to the concept of a ‘normal’ childhood.
G It is no longer a privilege for children to attend school and all children are expected to spend a significant part of their day in a classroom. Once in school, children’s lives could be separated from domestic life and the adult world of work. In this way, school turns into an institution dedicated to shaping the minds, behaviour and morals of the young. Besides, education dominated the management of children’s waking hours through the hours spent in the classroom, homework (the growth of ‘after school’ activities), and the importance attached to parental involvement.
H Industrialisation, urbanisation and mass schooling pose new challenges for those who are responsible for protecting children’s welfare, as well as promoting their learning. An increasing number of children are being treated as a group with unique needs, and are organised into groups in the light of their age. For instance, teachers need to know some information about what to expect of children in their classrooms, what kinds of instruction are appropriate for different age groups, and what is the best way to assess children’s progress. Also, they want tools enabling them to sort and select children according to their abilities and potential.
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1 Aries pointed out that children did different types of work to adults during the Middle Ages.
- 2
2 Working children during the Middle Ages were generally unloved.
- 3
3 Some scientists thought that overwork might damage the health of young children.
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4 The rise of trade unions majorly contributed to the protection of children from exploitation in the 19th century.
- 5
5 Through the aid of half-time schools, most children went to school in the mid-19th century.
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6 In the 20th century, almost all children needed to go to school with a full-time schedule.
- 7
7 Nowadays, children’s needs are much differentiated and categorised based on how old they are.
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8 What had not become a hot topic until the French historian Philippe Aries’ book caused great attention?
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9 According to Aries, what was the typical image of children in Western Europe during the Middle Ages?
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10 What historical event generated the need for a large number of children to work for a long time in the 18th and 19th centuries?
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11 What bill was enacted to protect children from exploitation in Britain in the 1800s?
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12 Which activities were becoming regarded as preferable for almost all children in the 19th century?
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13 In what place did children spend the majority of time during their day in school?
Reading Passage 2: A New Look for Talbot Park
Talbot Park, a housing project in Auckland, New Zealand, was once described as a ghetto, troubled by high rates of crime and vandalism. However, it has just been rebuilt at a cost of $48 million and the project reflects some new thinking about urban design.
A The new Talbot Park is immediately eye-catching because the buildings look quite different to other state-housing projects in Auckland. ‘There is no reason why state housing should look cheap in my view,’ says architect Neil Cotton, one of the design team. ‘In fact, I was anticipating a backlash by those who objected to the quality of what is provided with government money.’ The tidy brick and wood apartments and townhouses would not look out of place in some of the city’s most affluent suburbs, and this is a central theme of the Talbot Park philosophy.
B Talbot Park is a triangle of government-owned land, which in the early 1960s was developed for state housing built around a linear garden that ran through the middle. Initially, there was a strong sense of neighbourliness. Former residents recall how the garden played a big part in their childhoods — a place where kids came together to play softball, cricket and bullrush. ‘We had respect for our neighbours and addressed them by title — Mr and Mrs so-and-so,’ recalls Georgie Thompson, who grew up there in the 1960s.
C Exactly what went wrong with Talbot Park is unclear. The community began to change in the late 1970s as more immigrants moved in. The new arrivals didn’t always integrate with the community and a ‘them and us’ mentality developed. In the process, standards dropped and the neighbourhood began to look shabbier. The buildings themselves were also deteriorating and becoming run-down, petty crime was on the rise and the garden was considered unsafe. In 2002, Housing New Zealand decided the properties needed upgrading. The question was, how to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past?
D One controversial aspect of the upgrade is that the new development has actually made the density of housing in Talbot Park greater, putting 52 more homes on the same site. Doing this required a fresh approach that can be summed up as ‘mix and match’. The first priority was to mix up the housing by employing a variety of plans by different architects: some of the accommodation is free-standing houses, some semi-detached, some low-level, multi-apartment blocks. By doing this, the development avoids the uniform appearance of so many state-housing projects, which residents complain denies them any sense of individual identity. The next goal was to prevent overspending by using efficient designs to maximise the sense of space from minimum room sizes. There was also a no-frills, industrial approach to kitchens, bathrooms and flooring, to optimise durability and ensure the project did not go over budget. Architecturally, the buildings are relatively conservative: fairly plain houses standing in a small garden. There’s a slight reflection of the traditional Pacific beach house (a fale) but it’s not over-played. ‘It seems to us that low-cost housing is about getting as much amenity as you can for the money,’ says architect Michael Thompson. Another key aspect of the ‘mix and match’ approach is openness: one that not only lets residents see what is going on but also lets them know they are seen. The plan ensures there are no cul-de-sacs or properties hidden from view, that the gardens are not enclosed by trees and that most boundary fences are see-through — a community contained but without walls.
E The population today is cosmopolitan: 50% Pacific Islanders, 20% Māori, 15% Asian, 10% New Zealand European and the rest composed of immigrants from Russia, Ukraine and Iran. ‘It was important that the buildings were sufficiently flexible to cater for the needs of people from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds,’ explains designer James Lundy.
F Despite the quality of the buildings, however, there should be no doubt that Talbot Park and its surrounding suburb of Tāmaki are low socio-economic areas. Of the 5,000 houses there, 55% are state houses, 28% privately owned (compared to about 65% nationally) and 17% private rental. The area has a high density of households with incomes in the $5,000 to $15,000 range and very few with an income over $70,000. That’s in sharp contrast to the more affluent suburbs in Auckland.
G Another important part of the new development is what Housing New Zealand calls ‘intensive tenancy management’. Opponents of the project call it social control. ‘The focus is on frequent inspections and setting clear guidelines and boundaries regarding the sort of behaviour we expect from tenants,’ says Graham Bodman, Housing New Zealand’s regional manager. The result is a code of sometimes strict rules: no loud parties after 10 pm; no washing hung over balcony rails; and a requirement to mow lawns and keep the property tidy. The Tenancy Manager walks the site every day, knows everyone by name and deals with problems quickly. ‘It’s all based on the intensification,’ says project manager Stuart Bracey. ‘We acknowledge that if you are going to ask people to live in these quite tightly-packed communities, you have to actually help them to get to know each other by organising morning teas and street barbecues.’ So far it seems to be working and many involved in the project believe Talbot Park represents the way forward for state housing.
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14 Paragraph A
- i. Some of the problems that developed at Talbot Park
- ii. Where the residents lived while the work was being completed
- iii. The ethnic makeup of the new Talbot Park
- iv. The unexpectedly high standard of the housing
- v. Financial hardship in Talbot Park and a neighbouring community
- vi. The experiences of one family living at Talbot Park today
- vii. How to co-ordinate and assist the people who live at Talbot Park
- viii. Raising the money to pay for the makeover
- ix. A close community in the original Talbot Park development
- x. Details of the style of buildings used in the makeover
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15 Paragraph B
- 16
16 Paragraph C
- 17
17 Paragraph D
- 18
18 Paragraph E
- 19
19 Paragraph F
- 20
20 Paragraph G
- 21
21 James Lundy
- A. Good tenant management involves supervision and regulation.
- B. State housing must be built at minimum expense to the public.
- C. Organising social events helps tenants to live close together.
- D. Mixed-race communities require adaptable and responsive designs.
- E. Complaints were expected about the high standard of the development.
- F. Too many rules and regulations will cause resentment from tenants.
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22 Graham Bodman
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23 Stuart Bracey
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Complete the summary: One aspect of the Talbot Park project that some critics are concerned about is that the higher _____ of accommodation would lead to the old social problems returning. To prevent this, a team of various _____ worked on the project to ensure the buildings were not uniform. Further, they created pleasant, functional interiors that could still be built within their _____.
Reading Passage 3: Science in the Kitchen
A There is a recent movement in the world of food, in which chefs are collaborating with scientists to teach themselves the chemistry and physics of cuisine. Even academics are getting excited about the results. Colin Osborne of the Royal Society of Chemistry in London is enthused: 'Chefs are using unusual methods to produce exciting dishes that would be impossible without modern science,' he says.
B You may wonder what's wrong with long-established culinary traditions. The fact is, many culturally ingrained cooking methods are less than perfect. Osborne gives the example of the common belief that frying meat seals in moisture, while researchers who weighed the meat actually found that moisture is lost in the process. Another example is the age-old technique of adding salt when boiling vegetables to raise the water's boiling point, thus cooking the vegetables faster. In fact, the amount of salt typically added does not raise the temperature significantly or improve the flavour, since only a minuscule amount is absorbed.
C Hervé This, director of the Molecular Gastronomy team at the French National Institute for Agricultural Research, spends much of his time trying to disprove culinary old wives' tales. He is empirically testing traditional beliefs about cooking and disproving the more absurd, tackling such questions as whether it's better to add vinaigrette to potato salad while the potatoes are still hot. 'The first modern chemists used kitchen equipment to do their experiments,' Hervé This explains. 'Since then, chemistry has undergone massive changes - but cooking methods have remained largely as they were in the Middle Ages.'
D It's seriously important work, says Peter Barham, a physicist at Bristol University. 'If you understand what's going on in cooking, you'll be better equipped to improve it.' Barham contends that it's difficult to get good results from cookery books, because recipes are typically poorly written. In stark contrast, he notes, scientific papers are subject to peer review, whereby experts pore over experiments to ensure they can be accurately reproduced.
E Barham also collaborates with leading British chef Heston Blumenthal, proprietor of The Fat Duck, a restaurant in the south of England. The restaurant is widely regarded as one of the best in the world, serving delightfully unexpected dishes such as nitro-scrambled egg and bacon ice cream. When Simon Campbell of the Royal Society of Chemistry bestowed an honorary fellowship on Blumenthal for creative applications of science to cooking, he said: 'The scientific community admires and respects the research that Mr Blumenthal has performed to harness cuisine to science. Through his inquisitive and innovative approach to food he has underlined spectacularly how chemistry permeates all aspects of texture, taste and smell.'
F Although some dishes sound gimmicky, this innovative approach to cooking is paying off. El Bulli in Catalonia, Spain - directed by chef Ferran Adrià - is another leading restaurant enthusiastically engaging with science. It's only open for six months of the year (to allow six months for research and development), yet is rumoured to be booked out for an entire year in advance.
G Such restaurants are part of the movement known as 'molecular gastronomy', an expression coined by physicist Nicholas Kurti, working in collaboration with Hervé This. Kurti once quipped that it is a sad reflection that we know the temperature inside the stars better than the temperature inside a soufflé. Kurti and Hervé This devised the expression 'molecular gastronomy' during the 1980s to denote the science of 'culinary transformations and eating phenomena' and differentiate it from food science.
H 'Twenty years ago the worlds of science and cooking were neatly compartmentalised,' agrees author Harold McGee, a top food science writer. 'There was food science: an applied science mainly concerned with understanding the materials and process of industrial manufacturing. And there was the world of domestic and restaurant cooking, traditional crafts that had never attracted much scientific attention.' A lot has changed in the two decades since he published his influential book on the topic. In a revised edition, McGee says the book was 'riding a rising wave of general interest in food, a wave that grew and grew, and knocked down the barriers between science and cooking, especially in the last decade. Science has found its way into the kitchen, and cooking into laboratories.'
I So what does the future hold? Rachel Edwards-Stuart is a graduate PhD student who is studying some remarkable food additives, including modified cellulose gels that solidify on heating and melt again as they are cooled. The idea is to make dishes that develop different flavours as they are eaten. Her other project is creating drinks that change flavour. 'The concept came from... Roald Dahl's children's book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where Willy Wonka makes a bubble gum that is a whole meal in one sweet,' she says.
J Unfortunately, Edwards-Stuart was unable to say more, due to a confidentiality agreement with the restaurant for which she conducts her research. While Hervé This, Blumenthal and Edwards-Stuart are the pioneers, the next phase will be to bring science into kitchens at home. Already there are books that provide an insight into the wondrous chemistry that turns humble ingredients into cuisine. And as the movement grows it will not be long before we see laboratory test tubes, flasks and maybe the odd centrifuge on sale next to carving knives, rolling pins and pressure cookers.
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27. Scientists and chefs have a long-established history of working together.
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28. Traditional ways of cooking tend to be supported by modern scientific research.
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29. The food produced by Heston Blumenthal at The Fat Duck is unconventional.
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30. El Bulli is the most popular restaurant of its kind in Spain.
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31. McGee has plans to open his own restaurant.
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32. The purpose of Hervé This's research is to
- A. determine how chemistry has influenced modern cooking.
- B. provide a scientific basis for traditional cooking methods.
- C. show that long-held beliefs about cooking are wrong.
- D. offer practical advice to those who cook at home.
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33. According to Peter Barham, one difference between cookery books and scientific papers is that
- A. scientific papers are checked by more people.
- B. the writers of cookery books need not be qualified.
- C. the language used in scientific papers is more complicated.
- D. recipe writers can profit more financially than scientific writers.
- 32
34. Nicholas Kurti referred to a soufflé in order to
- A. give an example of a dish that can easily be ruined by excess heat.
- B. highlight the inadequacy of scientific research into cooking.
- C. show that cooking is similar to other scientific processes.
- D. confess his own limitations as a cook.
- 33
35. One aspect of Rachel Edwards-Stuart's research involves
- A. matching solid food to complementary liquids.
- B. determining which tastes appeal to young people.
- C. studying how food changes form in certain conditions.
- D. evaluating the risk of damage from using preservatives in food.
- 34
36. Colin Osborne explains that
- A. there used to be a clear division between cooking and science.
- B. well-established cooking traditions have come back into fashion.
- C. cooking has failed to keep pace with scientific developments.
- D. an imaginary invention inspired scientific research.
- E. science has helped cooks make meals that would otherwise be unachievable.
- F. an award was given to acknowledge work in scientific gastronomy.
- G. there is new terminology to describe the study of culinary reactions.
- H. the home cook is not able to achieve the same level of innovation as a professional chef.
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37. Hervé This's research has led him to the view that
- A. there used to be a clear division between cooking and science.
- B. well-established cooking traditions have come back into fashion.
- C. cooking has failed to keep pace with scientific developments.
- D. an imaginary invention inspired scientific research.
- E. science has helped cooks make meals that would otherwise be unachievable.
- F. an award was given to acknowledge work in scientific gastronomy.
- G. there is new terminology to describe the study of culinary reactions.
- H. the home cook is not able to achieve the same level of innovation as a professional chef.
- 36
38. Thanks to the joint effort of Nicholas Kurti and Hervé This
- A. there used to be a clear division between cooking and science.
- B. well-established cooking traditions have come back into fashion.
- C. cooking has failed to keep pace with scientific developments.
- D. an imaginary invention inspired scientific research.
- E. science has helped cooks make meals that would otherwise be unachievable.
- F. an award was given to acknowledge work in scientific gastronomy.
- G. there is new terminology to describe the study of culinary reactions.
- H. the home cook is not able to achieve the same level of innovation as a professional chef.
- 37
39. Food writer Harold McGee says that
- A. there used to be a clear division between cooking and science.
- B. well-established cooking traditions have come back into fashion.
- C. cooking has failed to keep pace with scientific developments.
- D. an imaginary invention inspired scientific research.
- E. science has helped cooks make meals that would otherwise be unachievable.
- F. an award was given to acknowledge work in scientific gastronomy.
- G. there is new terminology to describe the study of culinary reactions.
- H. the home cook is not able to achieve the same level of innovation as a professional chef.
- 38
40. Rachel Edwards-Stuart gives an example of a case where
- A. there used to be a clear division between cooking and science.
- B. well-established cooking traditions have come back into fashion.
- C. cooking has failed to keep pace with scientific developments.
- D. an imaginary invention inspired scientific research.
- E. science has helped cooks make meals that would otherwise be unachievable.
- F. an award was given to acknowledge work in scientific gastronomy.
- G. there is new terminology to describe the study of culinary reactions.
- H. the home cook is not able to achieve the same level of innovation as a professional chef.
ดูเฉลย
เฉลย
1. FALSE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. NOT GIVEN
5. FALSE
6. NOT GIVEN
7. TRUE
8. history of childhood
9. miniature adults
10. industrialisation
11. the Factory Act
12. play and education
13. classroom
14. iv
15. ix
16. i
17. x
18. iii
19. v
20. vii
21. D
22. A
23. C
24. density / architects / budget
25. NOT GIVEN
26. NO
27. YES
28. NOT GIVEN
29. NOT GIVEN
30. C
31. A
32. B
33. C
34. E
35. C
36. G
37. A
38. D